Social Psychology Glossary: Key Terms & Definitions
Hey guys! Ever feel like you're wading through a sea of jargon when trying to understand social psychology? Don't worry; you're not alone! Social psychology, the fascinating field that explores how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others, can sometimes feel like learning a whole new language. That's why I've put together this comprehensive glossary of key terms and definitions to help you navigate the social world with confidence. Let's dive in and decode the language of social psychology together!
Attitudes
Attitudes in social psychology refer to our evaluations of people, objects, and ideas. These evaluations can be positive, negative, or ambivalent, and they significantly influence our behavior. Understanding attitudes is crucial because they are the lens through which we perceive the world and make decisions. Attitudes are formed through various processes, including direct experience, social interaction, and learning. For example, if you have a positive experience with a particular brand of coffee, you are likely to develop a positive attitude towards it. Similarly, if your friends express negative opinions about a certain political candidate, you might adopt a similar attitude.
Attitudes have three main components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The cognitive component involves our beliefs and thoughts about the attitude object. For instance, you might believe that exercise is good for your health. The affective component encompasses our feelings and emotions associated with the attitude object. You might feel happy and energized after a workout. The behavioral component refers to our actions or intended actions towards the attitude object. You might regularly go to the gym or participate in sports. These three components often align, but they can sometimes be inconsistent, leading to what is known as cognitive dissonance. For example, you might know that smoking is bad for you (cognitive), feel anxious about the health risks (affective), but continue to smoke anyway (behavioral). This inconsistency can create discomfort, motivating you to change your attitude or behavior to reduce the dissonance.
Furthermore, attitudes can be either explicit or implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of and can easily report. Implicit attitudes, on the other hand, are unconscious and involuntary evaluations that can influence our behavior without our awareness. Implicit attitudes are often measured using techniques like the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which assesses the strength of associations between concepts in our minds. For example, you might explicitly believe that all people are equal, but unconsciously hold negative implicit attitudes towards certain social groups. These implicit attitudes can affect your interactions with others, even if you are not aware of them. Understanding the difference between explicit and implicit attitudes is essential for addressing issues of prejudice and discrimination.
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is a state of mental discomfort arising from conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. This discomfort motivates individuals to reduce the dissonance through various strategies. Imagine you're on a diet but can't resist indulging in a piece of cake. The conflict between your desire to lose weight and your behavior of eating cake creates cognitive dissonance. This theory, proposed by Leon Festinger, suggests that we are driven to maintain consistency in our thoughts and actions. When we experience inconsistency, we feel uneasy and are motivated to restore balance. Cognitive dissonance is a powerful force that influences our decisions and behaviors in many aspects of life.
There are several ways to reduce cognitive dissonance. One common strategy is to change one of the conflicting attitudes or behaviors. In the cake example, you might decide that the diet is too restrictive and allow yourself occasional treats. Another strategy is to add consonant cognitions to justify the behavior. You might tell yourself that the cake was a special occasion or that you will exercise extra hard tomorrow to compensate. A third strategy is to reduce the importance of the conflict. You might convince yourself that a single piece of cake won't significantly impact your weight loss goals. Finally, you can change your perception of the behavior. You might argue that the cake was actually healthy because it contained fruit.
The magnitude of cognitive dissonance depends on several factors, including the importance of the conflicting cognitions, the degree of inconsistency, and the amount of effort invested in the behavior. For example, if you spent a lot of time and money preparing the cake, you would experience more dissonance than if you simply bought a slice from the store. Cognitive dissonance theory has important implications for understanding persuasion, decision-making, and attitude change. It explains why people sometimes engage in behaviors that seem irrational or inconsistent with their beliefs. By understanding the mechanisms of cognitive dissonance, we can better understand how people make sense of their actions and maintain a sense of self-consistency.
Conformity
Conformity refers to the act of aligning one's behavior or beliefs with those of a group or social norms. This can occur due to informational social influence (accepting information from others as evidence about reality) or normative social influence (conforming to fit in and avoid social rejection). Think about a time when you found yourself doing something just because everyone else was doing it, even if you didn't necessarily agree with it. That's conformity in action! Conformity is a fundamental aspect of social behavior that helps to maintain social order and cohesion. It allows us to function effectively in groups and navigate social situations with ease.
There are several factors that influence conformity. Group size is one important factor. Conformity tends to increase as the size of the group increases, up to a certain point. After that, the effect of group size diminishes. Group unanimity is another crucial factor. Conformity is more likely when everyone in the group agrees. If even one person dissents, it can significantly reduce conformity. Cultural norms also play a significant role. Some cultures are more collectivist, emphasizing group harmony and conformity, while others are more individualistic, valuing independence and nonconformity. Individual differences in personality, such as self-esteem and need for approval, can also influence conformity.
The classic study on conformity is the Asch experiment, where participants were asked to judge the length of lines. In this experiment, participants were placed in a group with several confederates who intentionally gave incorrect answers. The results showed that participants often conformed to the incorrect answers, even when they knew they were wrong. This study demonstrated the power of normative social influence and the desire to fit in. Conformity can have both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it can promote cooperation, social harmony, and the adoption of beneficial norms. On the other hand, it can lead to the suppression of dissent, the acceptance of harmful practices, and the perpetuation of social inequalities.
Discrimination
Discrimination involves unfair treatment or actions directed against individuals or groups based on characteristics like race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. This can manifest in various forms, from subtle microaggressions to overt acts of prejudice. Imagine being denied a job or housing opportunity simply because of your ethnicity or gender. That's discrimination at its ugliest. Discrimination is a pervasive social problem that has profound consequences for individuals and society as a whole. It can lead to feelings of alienation, marginalization, and injustice. It also undermines social cohesion and equality.
Discrimination can be based on a variety of factors, including prejudice, stereotypes, and social norms. Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or feelings towards individuals based on their group membership. Stereotypes are oversimplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of members of a particular group. Social norms can also perpetuate discrimination by reinforcing existing inequalities and biases. Discrimination can occur at different levels, including individual, institutional, and systemic. Individual discrimination involves biased actions by individuals against members of a particular group. Institutional discrimination refers to discriminatory practices embedded within organizations and institutions. Systemic discrimination encompasses broader patterns of inequality that are ingrained in social structures and policies.
There are numerous examples of discrimination throughout history and in contemporary society. Racial discrimination has been a persistent issue, leading to segregation, violence, and economic disparities. Gender discrimination continues to affect women in various domains, including employment, education, and political representation. Discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals remains a significant problem, resulting in harassment, discrimination in housing and employment, and denial of legal rights. Addressing discrimination requires a multi-faceted approach that includes challenging prejudice, dismantling stereotypes, reforming social norms, and enacting anti-discrimination laws. It also requires promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion in all aspects of society.
Fundamental Attribution Error
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the role of personal factors (dispositional attributions) and underestimate the role of situational factors when explaining others' behavior. For example, if someone cuts you off in traffic, you might assume they are a reckless and inconsiderate person, rather than considering they might be rushing to the hospital. This bias in attribution can lead to misunderstandings and negative judgments about others. The fundamental attribution error is a common cognitive bias that affects how we perceive and interpret the behavior of others.
There are several reasons why we commit the fundamental attribution error. One reason is that we tend to focus on the person rather than the situation when observing behavior. The person is more salient and attention-grabbing than the surrounding circumstances. Another reason is that we lack information about the situational factors that might be influencing the person's behavior. We may not know that the person is having a bad day, facing a personal crisis, or dealing with external pressures. Additionally, we may be motivated to make dispositional attributions because they provide us with a sense of control and predictability. If we believe that people's behavior is caused by their personality traits, we can better anticipate their actions in the future.
The fundamental attribution error is more likely to occur when we are explaining the behavior of others than when we are explaining our own behavior. When explaining our own behavior, we are more aware of the situational factors that are influencing us. This is known as the actor-observer bias. The fundamental attribution error can have significant consequences in various contexts, including interpersonal relationships, legal judgments, and social policy. It can lead to unfair judgments, biased decisions, and ineffective interventions. By understanding the fundamental attribution error, we can become more aware of our biases and make more accurate and fair judgments about others.
Obedience
Obedience involves complying with the demands of an authority figure. Stanley Milgram's famous experiments demonstrated the extent to which individuals will obey orders, even if it means harming others. Imagine a situation where you are asked to do something that goes against your moral principles, but you feel compelled to do it because an authority figure is instructing you. That's the power of obedience at play! Obedience is a crucial aspect of social organization that allows societies to function effectively. However, it can also have negative consequences when it leads to unethical or harmful behavior.
Several factors influence obedience. The legitimacy of the authority figure is a key factor. People are more likely to obey someone they perceive as having legitimate authority. The proximity of the authority figure also matters. Obedience tends to decrease as the authority figure becomes more distant. The presence of dissenters can also reduce obedience. If others are refusing to obey, it makes it easier for individuals to resist. Individual differences in personality, such as authoritarianism and empathy, can also influence obedience. People with higher levels of authoritarianism are more likely to obey authority figures, while those with higher levels of empathy are less likely to harm others.
Milgram's experiments involved participants who were instructed to deliver electric shocks to a learner (who was actually a confederate) whenever the learner made a mistake on a task. The shocks increased in intensity with each mistake. The results showed that a surprisingly high percentage of participants were willing to administer shocks to the highest level, even when the learner protested and screamed in pain. These experiments raised ethical concerns about the treatment of participants and highlighted the dangers of blind obedience. Obedience can have both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it can promote social order, cooperation, and adherence to laws and regulations. On the other hand, it can lead to the perpetration of atrocities, the suppression of dissent, and the violation of human rights.
Prejudice
Prejudice refers to preconceived negative judgments about a group and its individual members. It's often based on stereotypes and can lead to discriminatory behavior. Think about the times you've heard someone make sweeping generalizations about a particular group of people. That's prejudice in action! Prejudice is a complex phenomenon that involves both cognitive and emotional components. It can be explicit (conscious and openly expressed) or implicit (unconscious and automatic). Prejudice is a pervasive social problem that has profound consequences for individuals and society as a whole.
Prejudice can stem from various sources, including social learning, cognitive biases, and motivational factors. Social learning involves acquiring prejudiced attitudes from parents, peers, and the media. Cognitive biases, such as the tendency to categorize people into groups and to favor one's own group (in-group bias), can contribute to prejudice. Motivational factors, such as the desire to enhance one's self-esteem or to justify social inequalities, can also fuel prejudice. Prejudice can manifest in different forms, including racism, sexism, ageism, and homophobia. Racism involves prejudice and discrimination based on race. Sexism refers to prejudice and discrimination based on gender. Ageism involves prejudice and discrimination based on age. Homophobia refers to prejudice and discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals.
There are several ways to reduce prejudice. One approach is to promote intergroup contact under conditions that foster cooperation, equality, and mutual understanding. Another approach is to challenge stereotypes and to provide accurate information about different groups. A third approach is to address the social and economic inequalities that contribute to prejudice. A fourth approach is to promote empathy and perspective-taking, encouraging people to understand the experiences and perspectives of others. Reducing prejudice requires a sustained and multi-faceted effort that involves individuals, communities, and institutions. It also requires a commitment to creating a more just and equitable society for all.
Self-Serving Bias
The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (e.g., skill, intelligence) and our failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck, difficult circumstances). For example, if you ace an exam, you might attribute it to your intelligence and hard work. But if you fail an exam, you might blame it on the teacher's unfair grading or the difficulty of the test. This bias helps us maintain a positive self-image and protect our self-esteem. The self-serving bias is a common cognitive bias that affects how we perceive and interpret our own behavior.
There are several reasons why we exhibit the self-serving bias. One reason is that we are motivated to maintain a positive self-image. By attributing our successes to internal factors, we enhance our self-esteem and feel good about ourselves. By attributing our failures to external factors, we protect ourselves from feelings of guilt, shame, and inadequacy. Another reason is that we have more information about our own intentions, efforts, and circumstances than we do about others. We may be more aware of the situational factors that contributed to our failures. Additionally, we may be more likely to remember our successes than our failures.
The self-serving bias can have both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it can boost our confidence, motivation, and resilience. On the other hand, it can lead to unrealistic expectations, poor decision-making, and strained relationships. It can also hinder our ability to learn from our mistakes and improve our performance. The self-serving bias is more likely to occur when we are evaluating our own behavior than when we are evaluating the behavior of others. When evaluating others, we are more likely to commit the fundamental attribution error. By understanding the self-serving bias, we can become more aware of our biases and make more accurate and objective judgments about ourselves and others.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about a group of people, where identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members. Think about the common assumptions people make about certain professions or nationalities. Those are often based on stereotypes. Stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts that help us simplify and organize information about the social world. However, they can also lead to inaccurate and unfair judgments about individuals. Stereotypes are a pervasive aspect of human cognition that can have significant consequences for individuals and society as a whole.
Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Positive stereotypes, such as the belief that Asians are good at math, can still be harmful because they create unrealistic expectations and pressure individuals to conform to the stereotype. Negative stereotypes, such as the belief that elderly people are incompetent, can lead to discrimination and prejudice. Even neutral stereotypes can be problematic because they oversimplify and misrepresent the diversity within groups. Stereotypes can be based on a variety of factors, including race, gender, age, religion, and sexual orientation.
Stereotypes are often learned through social and cultural transmission. We acquire stereotypes from parents, peers, the media, and other sources. Stereotypes are reinforced through selective attention and confirmation bias. We tend to notice and remember information that confirms our stereotypes, while ignoring or dismissing information that contradicts them. Stereotypes can be difficult to change because they are often deeply ingrained in our beliefs and attitudes. Challenging stereotypes requires conscious effort, exposure to counter-stereotypical information, and intergroup contact. Reducing stereotypes is essential for promoting fairness, equality, and social justice.
I hope this glossary helps you better understand the key concepts in social psychology! Keep exploring, keep questioning, and keep learning about the fascinating ways we influence and are influenced by each other. You got this!